Case Briefs & Research Methods

Case Briefs

We prepared a case brief for each city based on interviews, official reports, and after-action analyses. Each brief, summarized below, offers key takeaways for training and planning purposes. Links to the full case briefs are also provided.

Nashville, TN—The Covenant School Shooting (2023)
On March 27, 2023, an active shooter killed six people, including three children, at The Covenant School. Nashville’s response garnered national attention, particularly in contrast to the delayed law enforcement actions during the 2022 Uvalde school shooting. The city’s swift and coordinated response is notable for the high level of preparedness of both civilian and law enforcement leaders. In addition, the city’s respectful collaboration with the religious community underscored its commitment to culturally sensitive crisis management. 

Highland Park, IL—Mass Shooting (2022)
On July 4, 2022, an active shooter opened fire during the city’s Fourth of July parade, killing seven people and wounding 48. Highland Park’s response is notable for its multi-faceted preparedness (including a multi-agency, regional mass shooting exercise), robust collaboration between city and county officials, and a clear delineation of roles between elected officials and professional staff. Mayor Nancy Rotering described her role as the “chief of compassion.” She delivered reassuring public messages, while City Manager Ghida Neukirch coordinated operations behind the scenes.

El Paso, TX—Walmart Shooting (2019)
On August 3, 2019, a hate-motivated attack at a Walmart store killed 23 people and wounded 22. El Paso’s mayoral response is noteworthy for Mayor Dee Margo’s ability to mobilize corporate and community partners, as well as the public, in key aspects of the response and recovery. The Mayor relied on his significant national media experience to advocate for the residents of El Paso, including the speedy release of death notifications to grieving family members. The El Paso Resiliency Center exemplifies an important public health resource and best practice.

Dayton, OH—Oregon District Shooting (2019)
On August 4, 2019, an active shooter killed nine people and injured 17 others in Dayton’s Oregon District. Law enforcement stopped the shooter in 32 seconds. Dayton’s mayoral response is noteworthy for Mayor Nan Whaley’s effective communication strategy, her close relationship with the Police Chief, which aided in the response and recovery, and her adept handling of the visit of President Donald J. Trump, who was a divisive figure for many in her community.

Parkland, FL—Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Shooting (2018)
On February 14, 2018, a former student killed 17 students and staff members and wounded 17 others at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School. This incident illustrates the unique issues posed by a school mass shooting, which command national attention and are especially traumatizing for children and families. Parkland’s mayoral response is noteworthy for Mayor Christine Hunschofsky’s compassionate leadership during a tragedy that affected community members she knew personally. The city’s planning for the first annual remembrance event is also noteworthy as a best practice.

Pittsburgh, PA—Tree of Life Synagogue Shooting (2018)
On October 27, 2018, an active shooter killed 11 worshipers and injured six others at the Tree of Life synagogue. Longstanding ties between city leaders, police, and faith communities helped protect other congregations and aid recovery. Mayor Peduto’s singular focus on meeting victims’ needs became a model for mayoral leadership during a mass casualty event.

Orlando, FL—Pulse Nightclub Shooting (2016)
On June 12, 2016, an active shooter killed 49 people and wounded 53 more at Pulse, a popular LGBTQ+ nightclub. Mayor Buddy Dyer’s response illustrates a well-coordinated response by the civic leaders of a large city with sophisticated policing and municipal resources. The Mayor’s tabletop exercise before the attack is noteworthy, as is his management of key operations, including the victims’ fund, the Family Assistance Center, and the Resiliency Center. The Mayor empowered his staff to act while focusing on his role as a voice for unity and healing on the international stage.

San Bernardino, CA—Inland Regional Center Shooting (2015)
On December 2, 2015, two shooters killed 14 people and wounded 22 others during a workplace event at the Inland Regional Center. The response to the San Bernardino shooting illustrates a case in which the Mayor took a background role to the county response, which was the employer of the victims of the attack. While Mayors always have a role to play as the face of their community and a voice for unity and healing, there may be less city involvement in a shooting that targets a workplace capable of a strong organizational response. Mayor Carey Davis’ response is also notable for his effective coordination between city, county, and federal authorities.

Research Methodology

In fall 2019, a year after the Tree of Life Synagogue Shooting in Pittsburgh, UnitedOnGuns Director Sarah C. Peck met with Mayor William Peduto. She asked what he needed most on that day that he didn’t have. Mayor Peduto said he would have used a “protocol” to help guide his response to the shooting.

Together with colleagues at the Public Health Advocacy Institute (PHAI), Mark Gottlieb and Emily Nink, Ms. Peck launched a research project to develop such a protocol. The team developed a semi-structured interview schedule to derive input from mayors, city manager, and other officials who have responded to a mass shooting.

“Mass Shooting” Defined
The news organization Mother Jones compiled a list of mass shootings in the U.S. dating back to 1982. Mother Jones originally defined “mass shooting” as “indiscriminate rampages in public places resulting in four or more victims killed by the attacker,” but in 2013 lowered the threshold to three killed. Mother Jones excluded “shootings stemming from more conventionally motivated crimes such as armed robbery or gang violence,” domestic violence-related murders, and rampages that resulted in fewer than the threshold number of victim fatalities. We selected potential research cases from the Mother Jones database using the criteria described below. Note that other databases define “mass shooting” differently.

Inclusion Timeframe
For the original research, we chose cases that occurred between January 1, 2011 and December 31, 2019. We selected this timeframe so that we could include technological developments relevant to crisis response (e.g., use of social media by public safety officials) and our ability to assess recovery efforts.

Exclusion Factors
We also excluded cases with a deceased mayor, that involved sprees across multiple jurisdictions, or that happened in unincorporated areas for which a civic leader was not identifiable as the primary responder to the incident. We also excluded cities that do not have a mayor as part of their government structure, such as Newtown, CT, site of the December 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School massacre.

Diversity Factors
To ensure the research results would be broadly useful to mayors across the country, we sought a diverse group of possible respondents to interview. We invited women and men, mayors from across the political spectrum, and mayors representing all major areas of the country: the East and West Coasts, the Midwest, the South, and the Southwest regions. We selected both large and small cities.

We then categorized the Mother Jones list into six location categories of shootings: (1) airport, military, and government; (2) workplace; (3) school; (4) place of worship; (5) outdoor event or entertainment; and (6) public accommodation (indoor). These categories were defined to highlight the unique challenges that different attack settings present to mayors and their staff.

Research Participants
Finally, within each category we chose the cases with the highest number of victims because they required a complex municipal response and ongoing recovery services for the victims, their families, and the community as a whole. This selection process produced eight mass shooting cases. We invited the mayors who had responded to these shootings to participate in this research. Six agreed to be interviewed: the former and current mayors of Dayton, El Paso, San Bernardino, Orlando, Parkland, and Pittsburgh.

To understand perceptions and observations of actions taken by the mayors, we also interviewed “key informants” from each of the cities selected, including law enforcement officials, city staffers, and others. In total, we interviewed 16 individuals between December 2020 and March 2021. The mayors’ experiences and existing public health resources were used to create the Mass Shooting Protocol & Playbook and supplemental preparedness resources.

2025 Update Research Methods
We decided to update the Mass Shooting Protocol & Playbook to remain relevant and useful for civic leaders. In 2024 and 2025, we conducted additional research to include the insights and best practices of cities that used our resources to respond to a mass shooting. In total, we interviewed six city officials in Nashville, TN and Highland Park, IL. We also interviewed additional subject matter experts. As before, the new cases focused on the three stages of preparation, response, and recovery, but were not subject to the same selection criteria described above.

All UnitedOnGuns mass shootings resources were comprehensively updated in 2025.